Rust Basics

10 examples to get you started with Rust fundamentals - 7 basic and 3 intermediate.

Prerequisites

• Rust 1.97.0 with edition 2024 (rustup default stable)
• cargo --version prints 1.97 or newer

Basic Examples

1. Hello with main

Every Rust program starts at main.

fn main() {
    println!("Hello, Rust!");
}

• cargo new hello scaffolds a binary crate
• cargo run compiles and executes
• println! is a macro, not a function
• Semicolons end statements; expressions without ; are returned values

Related: Formatting & Printing - Display and format specifiers

2. Immutable and Mutable Bindings

Variables are immutable unless you opt in with mut.

fn main() {
    let x = 5;
    // x = 6; // compile error
 
    let mut count = 0;
    count += 1;
    println!("{count}");
}

• let creates a binding; immutability is the default
• mut allows reassignment of the binding
• Immutability does not mean the value behind a reference cannot change
• Prefer let without mut until mutation is required

Related: Variables, Mutability & Shadowing - shadowing and constants

3. Scalar Types

Rust has fixed-size integers, floats, bool, and char (Unicode scalar).

fn main() {
    let age: u32 = 30;
    let ratio: f64 = 0.75;
    let active: bool = true;
    let letter: char = 'R';
    println!("{age} {ratio} {active} {letter}");
}

• Integer types: i8..i128, u8..u128, isize, usize
• Type inference fills in types when unambiguous
• char is 4 bytes (Unicode), not 1 byte like C
• Literals support suffixes: 42u64, 3.14f32

Related: Scalar & Compound Types - tuples and arrays

4. Functions and Return Values

The last expression in a block is the return value.

fn add(a: i32, b: i32) -> i32 {
    a + b
}
 
fn main() {
    let sum = add(2, 3);
    println!("{sum}");
}

• Parameter types and return type are required (except for main)
• return is explicit but rarely needed
• A trailing ; turns an expression into a statement (discards value)
• Functions are first-class names, not methods on objects

Related: Functions & Expressions - expressions vs statements

5. if as an Expression

Branches can produce values when both arms return the same type.

fn main() {
    let n = 7;
    let label = if n % 2 == 0 { "even" } else { "odd" };
    println!("{n} is {label}");
}

• if/else must return compatible types in all arms
• No implicit truthiness: conditions must be bool
• Use if let for single-pattern matches (covered later)
• Prefer expressions over temporary let + mutation

Related: Control Flow - loops and match

6. Ownership Preview

Each value has one owner; assigning moves ownership for non-Copy types.

fn main() {
    let s1 = String::from("hello");
    let s2 = s1; // move - s1 is no longer valid
    // println!("{s1}"); // error: value moved
    println!("{s2}");
}

• String owns heap data; &str borrows a string slice
• Moves prevent double-free without a garbage collector
• Stack integers (i32) implement Copy and duplicate instead of move
• Borrowing with & shares read access without transferring ownership

Related: Ownership Preview - moves and borrows in depth

7. References and Borrowing

Borrow with & for read-only access, &mut for exclusive mutation.

fn len(s: &String) -> usize {
    s.len()
}
 
fn main() {
    let mut text = String::from("rust");
    println!("{}", len(&text));
    text.push_str("ace");
    println!("{text}");
}

• One &mut or many & to the same data at a time
• References must not outlive the data they point to
• Slices (&[T], &str) are fat pointers to contiguous sequences
• The borrow checker enforces these rules at compile time

Related: References & Slices - slice syntax and bounds

Intermediate Examples

8. Pattern Matching with match

match is exhaustive: every variant must be handled.

enum Status {
    Ok,
    Err(u16),
}
 
fn describe(s: Status) -> &'static str {
    match s {
        Status::Ok => "success",
        Status::Err(code) => {
            println!("error code: {code}");
            "failure"
        }
    }
}
 
fn main() {
    println!("{}", describe(Status::Ok));
}

• _ is a wildcard arm for catch-all patterns
• Bindings (code) extract inner values from enum variants
• match on Option/Result is the idiomatic error path
• Compiler errors if you miss a variant

Related: Control Flow - if let and loops

9. Result for Recoverable Errors

Functions that can fail return Result<T, E>.

use std::fs;
 
fn read_config(path: &str) -> Result<String, std::io::Error> {
    fs::read_to_string(path)
}
 
fn main() {
    match read_config("config.toml") {
        Ok(body) => println!("{body}"),
        Err(e) => eprintln!("failed: {e}"),
    }
}

• Ok(T) carries success; Err(E) carries failure
• ? propagates errors in functions returning Result
• Panics (panic!, unwrap) are for unrecoverable bugs
• Libraries use typed errors; binaries often use anyhow

Related: Ownership Preview - error types are enums too

10. A Minimal Unit Test

Tests live in the same file or in tests/ integration directories.

pub fn double(n: i32) -> i32 {
    n * 2
}
 
#[cfg(test)]
mod tests {
    use super::*;
 
    #[test]
    fn doubles_values() {
        assert_eq!(double(3), 6);
    }
}

• #[test] marks a function for cargo test
• assert_eq! compares debug output on failure
• Unit tests share the module's private API
• Integration tests in tests/*.rs see only the public API

Related: Rust Fundamentals Best Practices - habits before advanced topics

External Related Links

• rust-lang.org - Official Rust homepage with install, learn, and community links.
• The Rust Programming Language (The Book) - Canonical beginner-to-intermediate guide (ownership, borrowing, traits, etc.).
• Rust Playground - Online REPL for quick experiments.
• The Rust Programming Language, 3rd Edition (O'Reilly) - Klabnik, Nichols, Krycho.
• Rust in Action (Manning) - Tim McNamara.

Stack versions: This page was written for Rust 1.97.0 (edition 2024), Tokio 1.x, Axum 0.8, serde 1.0, sqlx 0.8, clap 4, and Polars 0.46+.